Lanciano, Italy — 750 AD

Eucharistic Image Video Document

The story in one line

a consecrated Host and wine at Lanciano changed into human flesh and blood and were preserved as relics.

The basic story

A host and wine were preserved in Lanciano, Italy after an 8th-century Mass. In 1970, a professor of anatomy and histological chemistry analyzed them. He found human cardiac tissue and human blood — both type AB — with no preservatives and no scientific explanation for their state.

Historical setting

Lanciano is one of the oldest Eucharistic miracle traditions, set in early medieval Italy and later reframed through twentieth-century laboratory examination.

~750 AD Lanciano, Abruzzo, Italy Analyzed 1970–71 Blood Type AB

The flesh relic of the Lanciano Eucharistic Miracle, backlit in its silver monstrance at the Church of San Francesco, Lanciano, Italy. — The preserved flesh relic of the Lanciano miracle, backlit in its silver monstrance at the Church of San Francesco, Lanciano, Italy. The relic has remained in this church since the 8th century.

Traditional event date

8th century

Local sanctuary tradition places the reported change during a Basilian monk’s Mass in Lanciano sometime in the 700s.

Preservation site

San Francesco, Lanciano

The relics are kept at the Sanctuary of the Eucharistic Miracle in the church of San Francesco in Lanciano.

Scientific testing

November 1970 to March 1971

Odoardo Linoli conducted the main laboratory work, with Ruggero Bertelli cited for independent histological confirmation.

Published record

Linoli (1971), PMID 4950729

The only peer-reviewed article reporting original laboratory analysis of the Lanciano samples is Linoli’s 1971 paper indexed in PubMed.

Primary-source file

Indexed scientific record PubMed record for Linoli (1971), PMID 4950729

The institutional bibliographic record for the 1971 laboratory paper on the Lanciano relics.

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Local archive copy Original Italian scan of Linoli’s 1971 paper

Local archive copy of the Italian article used on this page.

/images/lanciano/Linoli_1971_Original_Italian.pdf Local archive copy English translation of Linoli’s 1971 paper

Local English translation of the 1971 article for readers following the laboratory details.

/images/lanciano/Linoli_1971_English_Translation_Final.pdf Official Italian bishops portal BeWeB: San Francesco, Sanctuary of the Eucharistic Miracle

Italian bishops’ cultural-heritage portal describing San Francesco and the Lanciano Eucharistic miracle tradition.

beweb.chiesacattolica.it

Publicly documented chronology

8th century: Local Lanciano tradition places the reported transformation of the host and wine during a Mass celebrated by a Basilian monk.^[1][2]
Subsequent centuries: The relics were preserved in Lanciano and eventually housed in the church of San Francesco, which remains the principal sanctuary for the case today.^[2]
November 18, 1970 to March 4, 1971: Odoardo Linoli carried out the documented laboratory examination later published in Quaderni Sclavo di Diagnostica Clinica e di Laboratorio.^[3]
1971: Linoli’s article was published and later indexed in PubMed as PMID 4950729.^[3]
May 5, 2005: Linoli gave a public interview during the Year of the Eucharist congress in Rome, revisiting the findings decades after publication.^[7]

The basic facts

The consecrated host is a small disc of unleavened bread used in Catholic Mass. Consecration is the moment in the Mass when — according to Catholic doctrine — the bread and wine become the Body and Blood of Christ. The doctrine is called transubstantiation: the physical appearances remain (bread still looks like bread, wine still looks like wine), but the underlying substance is held to have changed entirely.

The “transformed state” refers to what reportedly happened at Lanciano: rather than retaining the appearance of bread and wine, the host and wine visibly changed — the host into what appeared to be flesh, and the wine into what appeared to be blood. This is what made the event anomalous even within Catholic tradition. Most claimed eucharistic miracles involve spiritual or devotional experiences; this one left physical matter.

Where the blood comes from: the wine is what was analyzed as blood. Catholic theology holds that the consecrated wine becomes the Blood of Christ. At Lanciano, the wine reportedly coagulated into visible blood — five distinct fragments, still present today.

In the town of Lanciano, Italy, sometime in the 8th century, a consecrated host and wine were reportedly preserved in their transformed state after a Mass at a small monastery.^[1][2] The preserved tissue and blood remained in Lanciano for over twelve centuries.^[1]

In 1970, they were submitted for scientific analysis.^[3]

The investigators were not asked to determine whether a miracle had occurred. They were asked to determine what the substance was.^{[3] — see the stated scope of investigation in the paper’s opening section}

A visual explainer of the Lanciano file showing the old sanctuary tradition, the 1970 to 1971 Linoli laboratory paper, and the relics' continuing custody in Lanciano. — Lanciano is built from three layers at once: an old sanctuary tradition, one modern published laboratory file, and the continuing public custody of the relics in the same church.

Source notes Reading the surviving sources on this page

What the sources show

There is a continuous sanctuary tradition and a modern published lab paper from 1971.
The published paper identifies myocardium and type AB blood and says no preservatives were found.
The relics remain publicly preserved in the same church context tied to the tradition.

Questions the sources leave open

How independent the 1970–71 investigation really was.
How much confidence readers should place in one modern laboratory file without broader replication.
Whether the tissue findings imply miracle or some unknown but natural intervention in the relic’s history.

What the current sources do not show

A modern independent retesting program with open chain-of-custody standards.
Multiple published replications by unrelated laboratories.
A way to bridge the historical gap between the eighth-century tradition and the twentieth-century testing with total certainty.

The investigation (1970–1971)

Who conducted it

The analysis was authorized by the local archdiocese^[2] and carried out by:

Professor Odoardo Linoli — Professor of Anatomy and Histological Chemistry, Head of the Laboratory of Pathological Anatomy at the Hospital of Arezzo, faculty at the University of Siena^{[3] — credentials stated on the paper’s title page}
Professor Ruggero Bertelli — Emeritus Professor of Normal Human Anatomy, University of Siena^[4]

The investigation ran from November 18, 1970 to March 4, 1971.^[3]

The investigation was commissioned and authorized by the Diocese of Chieti-Vasto — the institution with the most direct interest in a positive result, as the relics are housed at a shrine under its jurisdiction. Linoli and Bertelli were selected by and reported to that institution. No independent body commissioned or oversaw the analysis.

This is a structural conflict of interest regardless of whether the findings are accurate. It does not make the results wrong, but it means the investigation lacks the methodological independence that would normally be expected of a forensic analysis. Linoli was culturally Catholic, and his 2005 ZENIT interview makes clear he believed personally in the miraculous nature of what he analyzed — a prior belief that was present when he conducted the work.

The peer-reviewed journal publication provides a partial check: the paper’s methodology was evaluated by independent reviewers before acceptance. But the reviewers had no access to the original samples and could only assess the written account.

Linoli published his findings in a peer-reviewed journal:^[3]

Linoli, O. (1971). Ricerche istologiche, immunologiche e biochimiche sulla carne e sul sangue del miracolo eucaristico di Lanciano. Quaderni Sclavo di Diagnostica Clinica e di Laboratorio, 7(3), 661–674. PMID: 4950729

About this source

Here is the practical source situation. A 1971 paper by Odoardo Linoli really exists, and it is indexed in PubMed under PMID 4950729. That record confirms the journal, issue, page range, and publication year. So readers are not being asked to trust a rumor that “a study once existed.” There is a real bibliographic record for the article.

The PDFs linked on this page are local archive copies of that paper. They come from storiaechiesa.it, an Italian Catholic academic archive rather than a publisher site. So the strongest secure point is this: the paper is real and indexed, and these scans match that indexed record. The weaker point is that the scans are still archive copies rather than files downloaded directly from the original journal platform.

Why these scans can be treated as the paper they claim to be:

The specific numbers in the scans — albumin at 61.93%, calcium at 114.29 mg%, blood type AB — match exactly what Linoli described in his 2005 ZENIT interview
The journal name, volume, issue, page numbers, and date match the PubMed record exactly
The typographical style and citation conventions are consistent with 1971 Italian medical publishing
The hosting site (storiaechiesa.it) is an Italian Catholic academic resource

↓ Download Original Italian (PDF) ↓ Download English Translation (PDF)

What they found

Specifically, Linoli’s histological examination identified the tissue as striated muscular tissue of the myocardium.^[3]

From Linoli’s Conclusion I:^[3]

“the structural picture emerged from the study of the ancient Flesh of Lanciano presents itself as a striated muscle tissue which, by virtue of the clear, ubiquitous syncytial unions between fibres, is revealed as myocardial tissue.”

Scan of the histological findings section from Linoli's 1971 paper, showing the tissue identification as myocardium. — From the original Italian paper (Linoli 1971, PMID 4950729) — the histological findings section identifying the tissue as striated cardiac muscle (myocardium). Scan via storiaechiesa.it; original ordered via interlibrary loan.

The tissue is human.^[3] Its identification as cardiac muscle is not disputed by anyone who has examined the histology.^[4][8]

All findings from Linoli (1971).^[3] Histological findings independently confirmed by Bertelli (1971).^[4]

Finding	Result
Species	Human
Tissue type (Flesh)	Myocardium — striated cardiac muscle
Blood type	AB
Albumin	61.93%
Blood protein ratios	Normal — consistent with fresh, healthy blood
Calcium	114.29 mg% (anomalously high; Linoli attributed to masonry powder)
Preservatives	None found
Bacterial contamination	None found
Blood type match across Flesh and Blood	Yes — both AB

The five coagulated fragments

The Blood preserved at Lanciano consists of five coagulated fragments of different sizes and shapes, with a total weight of 15.85 grams.^[3]

An ancient record associated with the preservation claims that each fragment weighs the same individually — and that together, all five weigh the same as any one of them.^[1] We at The Miracle Record are not aware of any other analyses of this phenomenon.

The “WHO review” — a fraudulent claim

For decades, books and articles about Lanciano stated that the Higher Council of the World Health Organization appointed a commission in 1973 that conducted 500 separate examinations over 15 months and confirmed Linoli’s findings.^[1]

This claim is fraudulent. It has been confirmed as such in peer-reviewed literature.^[10]

Kearse & Ligaj (2024) traced the “500 examinations” figure to its source and found it derives from data concerning Egyptian mummies — content that was apparently interpolated between pages discussing the Lanciano miracle in a secondary source, creating a false association. No WHO commission report on the Lanciano relics exists. Serafini (2021) had previously identified the same problem from the secondary literature.^[8][10]

Linoli in 2005: a rare public reemergence

After publishing his 1971 paper, Linoli gave no known public interviews on his findings for 34 years. No popular books, no press appearances, no further public statements on the subject appear in the record between the paper’s publication and the 2005 congress.^[7]

The paper spoke for itself.

In 2005 — the Year of the Eucharist proclaimed by Pope John Paul II — Linoli accepted an invitation to present at a congress organized by the Science and Faith master’s program at Rome’s Regina Apostolorum Pontifical University, in cooperation with the St. Clement I Pope and Martyr Institute.^[7] He was in his eighties. It was, as far as is known, his only extended public commentary on the investigation since 1971.

ZENIT news agency published an interview following the congress:^[7]

“As regards the flesh, I had in my hand the endocardium. Therefore, there is no doubt at all that it is cardiac tissue.”

On the blood type and its geographic significance:^[7]

“The blood group is the same as that of the man of the holy Shroud of Turin, and it is particular because it has the characteristics of a man who was born and lived in the Middle East regions.”

“The AB blood group of the inhabitants of the area [of Lanciano, Italy] in fact has a percentage that extends from 0.5% to 1%, while in Palestine and the regions of the Middle East it is 14–15%.”

The implications of that last statement are left to the reader.

The full ZENIT interview is available at: zenit.org — “Physician Tells of Eucharistic Miracle of Lanciano” (May 5, 2005). It is also archived at the EWTN library.^[7]

Dr. Franco Serafini: cardiological interpretation and investigation

Dr. Franco Serafini is an Italian cardiologist at the Azienda USL di Bologna (Bologna Health Authority).^[8]

Serafini did not conduct any laboratory analyses of the Lanciano samples. He had no access to the relics and performed no new histological, biochemical, or immunological testing. His contribution is as an expert interpreter and investigator — not as a laboratory scientist.

What he did: interviewed Linoli and others directly involved in the 1971 investigation; applied his expertise as a practicing cardiologist to interpret what Linoli’s histological findings mean in modern clinical terms; traced and corrected the fraudulent WHO claim; and compared findings across multiple Eucharistic miracle cases.

His work was published as a popular book (Sophia Institute Press, 2021), not in a peer-reviewed journal. Sophia Institute Press is an explicitly Catholic publisher. Serafini is a self-identified Catholic whose investigation was motivated by his faith. His book is written for a general Catholic readership and argues for the miraculous interpretation of the evidence. These are relevant disclosures: his cardiological expertise is genuine and his engagement with the primary sources is substantive, but he is not a neutral party.

What Serafini’s cardiological interpretation adds — provable from his published work and interviews:^[8]

Reading Linoli’s histological sections through the lens of modern cardiology, Serafini identified the tissue as specifically from the left ventricle, near a valvular area — a more precise anatomical location than Linoli stated in 1971
The histological appearance of the tissue is consistent with acute inflammation — the biological pattern seen in cardiac muscle under severe physical stress or trauma. This is a clinical reading of Linoli’s slides, not a new analysis
The AB blood type is found in approximately 0.5–1% of Italian/European populations and 14–15% in Middle Eastern populations — a statistical observation Serafini drew from Linoli’s blood typing result and cross-referenced with demographic data (though this argument is challenged — see below)
He personally interviewed Linoli and other people involved in the 1971 investigation, and reported that Linoli stood fully by his findings
He traced the fraudulent WHO “500 examinations” claim to its likely source — content about Egyptian mummies misattributed to Lanciano in a secondary publication (later confirmed in peer-reviewed literature by Kearse & Ligaj 2024)^[10]

His book:

Serafini, F. (2021). A Cardiologist Examines Jesus: The Stunning Science Behind Eucharistic Miracles. Sophia Institute Press. ISBN: 9781644134771.

Available from Sophia Institute Press and major booksellers.

Filmed interview — EWTN Vatican:^[8]

Dr. Serafini’s full archive of interviews and media: francoserafini.it/audio-video

The peer-reviewed record: what it actually shows

There is exactly one peer-reviewed paper reporting original laboratory analysis of the Lanciano samples: Linoli (1971). Every paper below cites it rather than conducting new analysis of the relics.

Three subsequent peer-reviewed papers engage critically with Linoli’s methodology. None dispute the histological finding that the tissue is cardiac muscle — that finding has not been challenged in the scientific literature. What has been challenged is the blood typing and species identification methodology.

Kearse, K.P. & Ligaj, F. (2024) — Methodological standardisation^[10]

Kearse, K.P. & Ligaj, F. (2024). Scientific analysis of Eucharistic miracles: importance of a standardization in evaluation. Journal of Forensic Science Research, 8(1), 078–088. DOI: 10.33425/2639-9563.1068

A peer-reviewed review of the methodology used in Lanciano and five other Eucharistic miracle investigations. Key findings:^[10]

Linoli’s immunological species test used only bovine and rabbit controls — an insufficiently broad panel by modern standards. Without ruling out a wider range of species, the “human” identification cannot be considered definitively validated
Confirms that the WHO “500 examinations” report is fraudulent — tracing the “500 examinations” figure to data about Egyptian mummies that was misattributed to Lanciano in secondary literature
Calls for standardised investigation protocols for future Eucharistic miracle claims

Potential bias: Kearse is a self-identified Catholic (trained at Johns Hopkins, worked at the NIH). Notably, his Catholic faith did not bias him toward confirming the miracle — his analysis is critical of the methodology. A Catholic researcher writing critically of miracle evidence has less motivated reasoning toward a positive conclusion than a faith-motivated investigator, which is relevant to how the work should be read.

Kearse, K.P. (2025) — AB blood type challenge^[9]

Kearse, K.P. (2025). The relics of Jesus and Eucharistic miracles: scientific analysis of shared AB blood type. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology. DOI: 10.1007/s12024-024-00915-3. PMC: PMC12491371

A peer-reviewed challenge to the AB blood type argument across Lanciano, the Shroud of Turin, and related relics. Kearse is a Catholic immunologist trained at Johns Hopkins who worked at the NIH. Key finding:^[9]

Bacteria also express A and B surface antigens. The AB result cannot be taken as uniquely human without first ruling out bacterial contamination — which Linoli’s original methodology did not adequately address
This does not mean the result is wrong; it means it is insufficiently validated to rule out a non-human source

Potential bias: Same as above — Kearse is Catholic but his analysis is critical of the miracle claim. His conclusions run against what a faith-motivated researcher might be expected to produce.

Grzybowski, T. et al. (2025) — 25 recent cases, all naturally explained^[11]

Grzybowski, T., Wrzosek, M., Wołyniec, W., et al. (2025). Methodology for the analysis of biological impurities associated with peri-eucharistic phenomena. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 109, 58. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-025-13439-9. PMC: PMC11882681

A March 2025 paper by 13 researchers across forensic medicine, mycology, pathology, and molecular biology from multiple Polish universities. They analyzed 25 recent alleged Eucharistic phenomena using microbiology, histology, and forensic DNA.^[11]

All 25 cases had natural biological explanations (contamination, bacterial/fungal growth, environmental factors)
Cites Linoli (1971) directly
Explicitly notes that with very few exceptions, Eucharistic miracle findings have never been communicated through peer-reviewed literature — a direct critique of the broader field, including Serafini’s book
Proposes a standardised forensic protocol for future investigations

Potential bias: The 13 authors are affiliated with Polish universities. Poland is a predominantly Catholic country and many of the authors likely have Catholic cultural backgrounds — no specific religious affiliations are disclosed in the paper. However, their findings uniformly identify natural explanations for all 25 cases, which cuts against a faith-motivated bias toward confirming miracles. No funding conflicts are declared.

Investigation history

Before 1971

The relics have been in Lanciano since the 8th century. For most of that time, the scientific tools required to analyze them — histology, immunology, blood group serology, biochemical protein analysis — simply did not exist. These disciplines developed through the 19th and 20th centuries. There was no meaningful laboratory analysis that could have been conducted before the modern era.

There is also no tradition in Catholic relic veneration of scientific verification. Prior to the 20th century, Catholic authorities authenticated relics through canonical and theological processes: witness testimony, historical documentation, and approval by church authorities. Laboratory science was not part of the framework.

What prompted the 1971 investigation

The specific trigger for the 1971 investigation is not documented in Linoli’s paper, which states only that the analysis was authorized by the archdiocese. The broader context is the aftermath of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which explicitly called for the Catholic Church to engage with the modern world and modern science. The post-Vatican II period saw a wave of scientific investigations of religious claims — the STURP investigation of the Shroud of Turin (1978) emerged from the same cultural moment. Scientific confirmation was seen as valuable to Catholic credibility in a secular age.

The Diocese of Chieti-Vasto authorized the 1971 investigation. Who specifically proposed it and why that moment is not established in the primary sources available.

Since 1971

No later direct laboratory examination is documented in the public record used for this page. The situation involves both theological and practical constraints.

The practical reasons no further investigation has occurred:

Access is controlled by diocesan and shrine authorities. The relics are sacred objects in Catholic custody. No external institution has the authority to compel access or demand new samples.
Any additional sampling would remove material from an object of active veneration.
The critical peer-reviewed papers (Kearse 2024, 2025; Grzybowski et al. 2025) raise methodological concerns about the 1971 analysis but none of their authors were given access to the relics to conduct new testing. They can only critique what was done — they cannot independently replicate or extend it.
The 1971 investigation is the only data set that exists. Every subsequent discussion — Serafini’s book, the critical papers, this page — is commentary on a single study conducted over fifty years ago.

The connection to Buenos Aires (1996)

Over a thousand years later, in Buenos Aires, Argentina, a very different investigation produced remarkably similar findings:

A forensic cardiologist given a biological sample with no explanation of its origin identified it as human cardiac muscle from the left ventricle^[6]
The blood type was AB^[6]
The white blood cells in the tissue were visibly moving under the microscope^[6]

The two investigations were conducted independently, by different scientists, on different continents, 1,246 years apart. The tissue type and blood type match.^[3][6]

Read the Buenos Aires investigation →

The preserved relics today

The Flesh and Blood are kept in a reliquary above the high altar of the Church of San Francesco (formerly St. Legonziano), Lanciano, Chieti, Italy.^[2] They are available for examination by pilgrims and researchers year-round.

The shrine is open to scientific researchers who wish to perform further investigation.^[2]

References

Cruz, J.C. (1987). Eucharistic Miracles. TAN Books. — Chapter on Lanciano includes translated excerpts from Linoli’s report and the historical record of the five globules’ weight property. Note: Cruz’s account includes the “WHO 500 examinations” claim, which has since been challenged by Serafini (2018/2021) — see ref. [8].
Diocese of Chieti-Vasto / Shrine of the Eucharistic Miracle, Lanciano. Official shrine documentation. Available through the diocese or directly at the Church of San Francesco, Lanciano, Chieti, Italy.
Linoli, O. (1971). Ricerche istologiche, immunologiche e biochimiche sulla carne e sul sangue del miracolo eucaristico di Lanciano. Quaderni Sclavo di Diagnostica Clinica e di Laboratorio, 7(3), 661–674. PubMed PMID: 4950729. — Primary source for all histological, immunological, and biochemical findings. The paper’s scope (substance identification, not miracle determination) is stated in its opening section. Digital scans of both the original Italian and an English translation are available for download above; a physical copy has been ordered via interlibrary loan for independent verification.
Bertelli, R. (1971). Independent confirmation of Linoli’s histological findings. University of Siena. — This is an internal report, not a peer-reviewed journal publication. Bertelli was Emeritus Professor of Normal Human Anatomy at Siena; his confirmation of the myocardial identification is documented but has not been published in a scientific journal and therefore carries different evidential weight than Linoli’s paper.
Cruz, J.C. (1987). Eucharistic Miracles. TAN Books. (Secondary source for the WHO claim, which has since been confirmed fraudulent — see ref. [10].)
Castañón Gómez, R. (2002). A Scientific Analysis of the Eucharistic Miracle of Buenos Aires. — Documents the independent findings of Dr. Ricardo Bertone and Dr. Frederick Zugibe, including tissue identification as left-ventricular cardiac muscle, blood type AB, and the observation of living white blood cells.
Linoli, O. (May 5, 2005). Interview — Year of the Eucharist congress, Regina Apostolorum Pontifical University, Rome. Published by ZENIT news agency: zenit.org — “Physician Tells of Eucharistic Miracle of Lanciano”. Archived at: EWTN Library. — Linoli’s first extended public commentary since 1971; confirms specific findings including the AB blood type, its rarity in Italian vs. Middle Eastern populations, and the cardiac tissue identification.
Serafini, F. (2021). A Cardiologist Examines Jesus: The Stunning Science Behind Eucharistic Miracles. Sophia Institute Press. ISBN: 9781644134771. Italian edition: Un cardiologo visita Gesù (2018). — A popular book, not a peer-reviewed journal paper. Serafini is a cardiologist at the Azienda USL di Bologna. His contribution is expert cardiological interpretation of Linoli’s published histological findings, personal interviews with Linoli and others involved in the 1971 investigation, and identification of the fraudulent WHO claim. He conducted no independent laboratory analysis of the relics. Available at: Sophia Institute Press. Media: EWTN Vatican interview (2023).
Kearse, K.P. (2025). The relics of Jesus and Eucharistic miracles: scientific analysis of shared AB blood type. Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology. DOI: 10.1007/s12024-024-00915-3. PMC: PMC12491371. — Peer-reviewed challenge to the AB blood type argument across Lanciano, Shroud of Turin, and related relics. Kearse (Johns Hopkins-trained immunologist, NIH) argues bacterial AB antigen expression means contamination was not adequately ruled out in the original studies.
Kearse, K.P. & Ligaj, F. (2024). Scientific analysis of Eucharistic miracles: importance of a standardization in evaluation. Journal of Forensic Science Research, 8(1), 078–088. DOI: 10.33425/2639-9563.1068. — Peer-reviewed methodological review of Lanciano and five other cases. Finds Linoli’s species test insufficiently validated; confirms the WHO report is fraudulent. Calls for standardised investigation protocols.
Grzybowski, T., Wrzosek, M., Wołyniec, W., et al. (2025). Methodology for the analysis of biological impurities associated with peri-eucharistic phenomena. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 109, 58. DOI: 10.1007/s00253-025-13439-9. PMC: PMC11882681. — 13 researchers from multiple Polish universities; analyzed 25 recent alleged Eucharistic phenomena — all 25 had natural explanations. Cites Linoli (1971); notes that Eucharistic miracle findings are almost never published in peer-reviewed literature; proposes standardised forensic protocol.